The End of an Era: Meaning & Solace in Pre-Christian Society

The search for meaning and solace in the dangerous world before the birth of Christ

By John Issitt

Conditions of life until the 20^th century were pretty raw and sadly, they continue to be so for many people. Fighting, pestilence, lack of food and the abuses of others were the conditions most people were born into. If you were lucky and strong enough to survive childhood you could count your blessing. Then the perils of childbirth for women and the demands of war for men, were just two of the imminent dangers that brought mortality to front of your mind. Unless you were very lucky, living into your fifth decade was unlikely.

In the face of such hardship we could easily be tempted into Thomas Hobbes’s famous dictum ‘life is nasty, brutish and short’. But people, by and large, can’t live with such meaningless pessimism. They look for, ache for, solace and a feeling of belonging to something that orientates their life. Whether it is fate, the play of the Gods or the spirits of nature, people need to locate themselves in relation to their experience. Our logic-orientated brains have sought reasons – some kind of rational account of what, why and how.

The story of reason that we in the Christian west tell ourselves is that from around the 5^th century BC from the pre-Socratics and then the trio of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, reason was born in ancient Greece from which the civilized world emerged. Despite serious omissions in the story (for example China, India and Persia) this lineage interlaced with more ancient scriptural accounts is the one we imbibe through our culture and is traced through the history of philosophy and ideas taught in our universities. Very, very crudely, reason passes through Rome, onwards through Christ, gets lost in the ‘Dark Ages’ emerges in the Renaissance, gets reworked through the Reformation, Descartes and Newton before arriving at the ages of Enlightenment, Revolution and Modernity. Phew!

The story of reason demands a lifetime of scholarship but reason itself is also severely limited in helping us deal with life. Reason alone never delivers what the human spirit needs and as Mahatma Gandhi famously put it ‘Reason given the status of omnipotence becomes a monster.’ In the centuries between Socrates and Christ, reason was worked and used in three of our most enduring philosophies. Again very, very crudely: Scepticism – the belief that real knowledge of things is impossible, Epicureanism – that the world is made of the mere fortuitous combination of atoms, and Stoicism – that happiness can only be obtained by submission to natural law.

All three are components of the intellectual resources we operate with today – you can find them in the everyday talk of folk. But can you see how they each attempt to deliver a reasoned account of the human condition, but are each insufficient in helping us to live our lives. They are at best partial accounts and do not answer our internal ache to find meaning. As people in the centuries before Christ and Christendom faced their hardships, such philosophies would not have helped them much.

The intellectual conditions before Christ lacked what the Christ story provided – a way of finding meaning in adverse conditions. Maybe that is why Christianity took such an enduring grip on us.

John Issitt is the author of Agents of Reason.
Website: http://www.agentsofreason.co.uk/,
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Professions: Circuit Riders

By Anna C. Bowling

Today, if someone would like a member of the clergy to perform weddings, funerals, baptisms of children or adults, give spiritual counsel or instruction or perform a worship service, the options are endless. A drive through most major cities will result in passing several churches, synagogues, mosques, meeting houses or other such places, and a flip through the yellow pages or a quick online search will bring up dozens of choices even beyond that.

In earlier times, such as the American colonial era or during the western expansion, people had to be a little...or a lot...more patient. Settling a new land or territory, more often than not, happened in stages, and settlers knew going into the new venture that they would have to forgo things taken for granted in their locale of origin. The way one conducted one's spiritual life was no exception.

While a person's faith travels with them no matter who or what is or isn't along for the ride, the way such faith is expressed can definitely be affected. Food, shelter and safety are prime concerns in these situations, with other aspects of life having to sit tight and wait a while. Enter the circuit rider.

Going from town to town, servicing those without a permanent clergy member or house of worship, the circuit rider had to be a spiritual jack of all trades, arriving in each stop on his circuit knowing that he'd need to pack weeks, months, or even years worth of pastoring into a short period of time.

He might find himself using the same ceremony to marry a young couple and baptize their child...or children. In some communities where a circuit rider was the only clergy they could get, this wasn't entirely uncommon, and the couple might actually be considered married by declaration until the preacher came by to make things legal. Memorial services for those buried weeks or months ago might also be on the schedule, and baptisms for any who wished it, from babies to new believers. He might be asked to perform services for denominations other than his own, and depended on the offerings of the communities for his upkeep.

Often without a permanent home of his own, the circuit rider had all the ups and downs of pastoring a regular church...times five, six, seven or however many stops he had on his circuit, not to mention the constant travel. Depending on what he could afford, he might travel his circuit actually riding on beast or wagon, or travelling by shank's mare: on foot. The life of a circuit rider was not easy or predictable, but for those with a true vocation and at least a touch of wanderlust, it could be a rewarding job choice.

I've said "he" in referring to the circuit riders of the past, as prior to the late 20th century, most Protestant denominations did not ordain women. Not so today--I know several modern-day itinerant ministers (what one might call the circuit riders of our day), male and female alike.

Religious Beliefs: Religion by Ranking

By Vicki Gaia

Haven't we heard, again and again, the advice never to discuss politics and religion at a social gathering? It's bound to stir up bad feelings, and, frankly, you can never win the argument. Yet religion is a subject that's fascinated people through history. Wars are fought in the name of religion, lovers scorned, and countries divided.

I've searched the web for the top religions. The rankings I found are from around 2001. Here's the top 13 religions list by number of adherents, according to this website. There are challenges to this ranking, of course, and this is one list out of many.

1. Christianity: 2.1 billion

2. Islam: 1.5 billion

3. Secular/Nonreligious/Agnostic/Atheist: 1.1 billion

4. Hinduism: 900 million

5. Chinese traditional religion: 394 million

6. Buddhism: 376 million

7. Primal/Indigenous: 300 million

8. African Traditional & Diasporic: 100 million

9. Sikhism: 23 million

10. Juche: 19 million

11. Spiritism: 15 million

12. Judaism: 14 million

13. Baha'i: 7 million

Here's another interesting list from the same website:

Top Religions in the U.S. (2001)

1. Christianity
2. Nonreligious/Secular
3. Judaism
4. Islam
5. Buddhism
6. Agnostic
7. Atheist
8. Hinduism
9. Unitarian Universalist
10. Wiccan/Pagan/Druid
11. Spiritualist
12. Native American Religion
13. Baha'i

According to another website, the growth rate of religions in the U.S. from the same time period shows an unusual tread:

Religions in the U.S. Based on Growth Rate (1990-2001)

1. Wiccan
2. Deist
3. Sikhism
4. New Age
5. Hindu
6. Baha'i
7. Buddhism
8. Congregational/UCC
9. Native American religions
10. Nonreligious/Secular
11. Muslim/Islamic
12. Christian
13. Taoist

Religious Beliefs: Atenism and the heretic pharaoh, Akhenaten

By Marianne LaCroix

"O Sole God beside whom there is none." -The Great Hymn to Aten

Atenism, also known as the Amarna heresy, took place during the 18th Dynasty reign of the Pharaoh Amenhotep IV, who later changed his name to Akhenaten. He introduced the worship of Aten, a sun deity, during year four of his reign. It is the earliest known monotheistic (belief in a single god) religion in history. At first he allowed the worship of the other established Egyptian gods such as Osiris, Isis, Horus, and Amun, setting Aten above all others as Supreme god.

In year five of Akhenaten's rule, construction began on the new capitol city Akhetaten, today known as Amarna. The location is thought to have been chosen by the pharaoh to be closer to Aten. It was during this time he changed his name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten as evidence to his worship of the sole god, Aten. In year seven, the Egyptian capital was officially moved from Thebes to Akhetaten even though construction continued for two more years. The move marked the "dramatic change in focus of religion and political power."

The move separated the pharaoh and his court from the political influence of priests and traditional centers of worship. In year nine, Aten was declared as not only supreme, but the ONLY god. Worship of all other deities (including idols, etc.) was forbidden. Defacing temples and images of Amun and the rest of the deities, establishing a strict unitarian monotheism. Unlike the other gods, Aten was protective and loving and did not require sacrifices. He was viewed not to punish but to gain allegiance and support through his loving presence. Aten's symbol became the solar disk, his loving rays descending down from the heavens upon his worshipers, (pictured above).

The banishment of all other gods within the Egyptian culture became equivalent of a widespread catastrophe. For twenty years Atenism replaced centuries of religious beliefs and practices. Akhenaten neglected politics, foreign policy and the economy deteriorated, focusing solely on his religious worship.

At the end of his reign, Akhenaten was isolated from the problems of his people. When he died, his successor, Smenkhkare, made a half hearted attempt to re-establish the old religions. It is argued by some experts that Smenkhkare was actually Akhenaten's famous queen, Nefertiti, disguised as a man. This is unlikely as the body of Smenkhkare was found in the Valley of the Kings. Also, in 2002, mummy number 61072 in KV35 is thought to be that of Nefertiti. (See the Discovery Channel special, "Nefertiti Rediscovered".)

At the death of Smenkhkare, Tutankhaten would take the throne at eight years old. Young and impressionable, the "Boy King" would prove to be the perfect ruler for the priests of the old gods and powerful advisers to mould and control. He would move the capitol back to Thebes and reestablish the old religions. He changed his name to Tutankhamun and restored order to the chaos caused by Akhenaten and Atenism.

For further reading of Akhenaten and Atenism, I suggest the book Akhenaten and the Religion of Light by Erik Hornung (Cornell University Press, ISBN: 978-0-8014-8725-5).

Marianne LaCroix
ROYAL BONDAGE, Pocket Books
PIRATE'S MISTRESS, Ellora's Cave

Religious Beliefs: Islam's Golden Age

By Lisa Yarde

From the eighth to the thirteenth century during Islam's Golden Age, rule by Muslim caliphs, sultans, emperors and emirs stretched from the Iberian Peninsula to China. These leaders fostered advancements in the arts, industry, literature, navigation, natural science, jurisprudence, philosophy and technology. Despite regional variations, their common faith bound the lands together in a common goal: religious expansion. Today, with over one billion Muslims in every corner of the globe, Islam is the second-largest world religion after Christianity.

Islam originated in the Arabian Peninsula, with a fundamental belief in the Jewish patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, which is also shared by Christianity. By Muslim tradition, Isaac's half-brother, Ishmael, son of the Egyptian slave girl Hagar, is considered the progenitor of the Arab people. The prophetic tradition which began with Judaism and continued in Christianity is also found in Islam. In 610AD, a young merchant named Muhammad from the Arabian city of Mecca began to receive revelations from God. He devoted the rest of his life to spreading God's words, requiring complete surrender to His teachings. The literal meaning of a Muslim is one who "submits to the will of God." The messages Muhammad received were memorized and later transcribed into verses of the Koran, Islam's holy book.

Thirteenth Century Koran from Islam's Golden Age

From its earliest origin, Islam impacted the daily lives of its adherents and converts, in particular with the Five Pillars of Islam. Practitioners then as now were required to declare their faith (Shahadah), perform ritual daily prayer (Salah), give alms to the needy (Zakat), fast during the month of Ramadan (Sawm) and where possible, make the pilgrimage (Hajj) to Muhammad's birthplace, the city of Mecca. The declaration of faith is the foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam; to speak it is to say "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." Muslims repeated it in prayer and converts gave a required testament to this creed to demonstrate their new found beliefs. Alms-giving remains obligatory for all who can afford it, similar to the Christian concepts of tithes in its fixed amount.

Of all the tenets of Islam, ritual prayers is the most apparent. Five times a day, Muslims still observe their compulsory devotions, often preceded by a call to prayer echoing from mosques. Friday prayers at the mosques remain especially important and are filled to capacity. The pilgrimage to Mecca and the fast at Ramadan are communal celebrations which stressed religious obligation. During the daylight hours of the fast, Muslims refrained from eating, drinking and other pleasures, to encourage the belief that God alone provides such comforts and to abstain from them is to grow closer to God. The pilgrimage, for those who could afford it, was a once in a lifetime opportunity to commune with fellow Muslims. Devotional acts ensued, including walking seven times around the Kaaba, the holiest place in Islam, believed by its adherents to be the work of the patriarchs Abraham and Isaac.

Modern-day Muslim Pilgrims near the Kaaba

Within a century of Muhammad's revelations, the expansion of the religion occurred. War and trade brought Islam out of the Arabian Peninsula. In the East, the new religion first spread among Turkic tribes in Central Asia into China via the Silk Road, followed by conquests in the Balkans, Southeast Asia and India. In the West, the Moors and Berbers began the Islamic conquest of North Africa in 643 AD and eventually reached sub-Saharan Africa and Spain.

When this expansion occurred, so too did a split among the religions adherents. There are two main denominations in Islam, Sunni and Shi'a. The leaders after Muhammad were described as caliphs or successors to the Prophet. The first two caliphs had been successful in maintaining a sense of communal unity. But tensions within the community surfaced during the era of the third caliph who was murdered by mutinous troops. They declared the new caliph to be Ali, a cousin of Muhammad who was an early convert and also the husband of Muhammad's daughter Fatimah. Muhammad's favorite wife Aisha, a daughter of the first caliph, defied Ali's rule and this struggle led to the divisions in Islam.

Conflict with Christianity, particularly the reconquest of Spain which began in the ninth century and the Crusades stifled the encroachment of Muslim rulers and their faith. While it flourished, Islam's expansion ushered in an age of discovery where Muslim communities encouraged and influenced the prevailing thoughts and ideals throughout many parts of the world.