Women Who Ruled: Toregene Khatun of the Mongol Empire

Jeannie Lin

Due to the demands of living out in the harsh conditions of the steppe, Mongolian women often shared the responsibilities of hunting and herding with the men. They knew how to ride horses and shoot. With the men frequently absent to wage war, women began to wield more influence, with some notable women assuming control as rulers. 

One such woman was Toregene Khatun. Khatun is a title meaning ‘queen’ or ‘empress’. Toregene was married to Genghis Khan’s third son Ogedei and served as regent after her husband’s death from 1241 until 1246, ruling over the largest empire in the world.

Toregene was a part of the Merkit clan, but when Genghis Khan conquered the Merkits, she was given to Ogedei as second wife. She gave birth to Ogedei’s oldest son and thus acquired a higher status than his first wife.

Ogedei was known to be a drunkard and it’s believed that Toregene began to exercise influence in his absence. The oldest recorded evidence of Toregene’s authority was an order to print Taoist texts which was issued in 1240 while Ogedei was still alive, which shows that she had already established herself within the Mongol court before his death.

By custom, after the khan’s death, it was up to the khatun, his wife, to summon the Mongolian nobility to an assembly to appoint the next ruler. Toregene postponed calling the assembly and handing over command to a successor. Instead, she dismissed Ogedei’s ministers and appointed her own and the most powerful role in her court was given to another woman, Fatima, who became her chief advisor.

During her five years as regent, she showed herself to be a capable ruler, negotiating with and eventually invading the powerful Song Dynasty and fighting them to a ceasefire. Toregene may have also had a hand in shaping the political development of the region. Toregene supported Emir Arghun Aqa, who went on to be one of Persia’s most long-serving and effective governors.

When Toregene did hand over the throne, it went not to Ogedei’s favored son and chosen successor, Kochu, but to her eldest son Guyuk, who she supported. After Guyuk took the throne, he turned around and undermined her authority, having Fatima executed for witchcraft and replacing her appointed ministers. Toregene herself died a year after his succession.

Historians Juvaini and Rashid ad-Din cast Toregene as a cunning and ugly shrew – but it makes one wonder whether this was in reaction to a woman who dared to seize power and take command in an empire controlled by men.

Mongolian noblewoman: The costumes in Star Wars prequels were inspired by Mongolian clothing.

References:

Lockhart, Andrew G. “Women Behind the Throne.” http://www.andrewglockhart.co.uk/Women%20Behind%20the%20Throne%20excover.pdf (March 15, 2012)

Weatherford, Jack. “The Women Who Ruled the Mongol Empire.” The Globalist. http://www.theglobalist.com/StoryId.aspx?StoryId=4601 (June 20, 2005)

Jeannie Lin writes historical romances set in Tang Dynasty China. Her current release, CAPTURING THE SILKEN THIEF, is an ebook novella available from Harlequin Historical Undone. Her upcoming novel, MY FAIR CONCUBINE, will be available June 1, 2012 from Harlequin Historical. For more information about her books, go to http://www.jeannielin.com

What Surprised Me: Unreliable Sources

By Zoe Archer

One of the reasons I love writing unusual historical romance is the opportunity to do research. Most sane people don't relish the prospect of lurking through university libraries, searching for the perfect primary source--but I never said I was sane, just a writer. So it's not uncommon for me to pick a subject matter or location that I'm not familiar with, knowing that I'll have to do my research prowling.

When I started outlining WARRIOR, right away I understood that I'd have to hie myself off to the library stacks and start reading up on the history and culture of Mongolia. I found a goodly amount of secondary sources, and even some first-hand travelers' accounts of contemporary Mongolia, but I wasn't just writing about Mongolia, I was writing about Mongolia in 1874. The country was a vastly different place over a hundred and twenty five years ago.

One day, in my hunt, I thought I struck research gold. It was a reprint of Mongolia, the Tangut Country, by Colonel Nikolai Przewalski (also spelled Przhevalsky). I danced the little researcher's dance of joy. Przewalkski's book was originally published in 1875--only a year later than the year in which WARRIOR was set. I wasn't too concerned about that year's difference. After all, the Mongol way of life did not and does not change very rapidly. I thought I was all set, with the mother of all primary sources.

You're probably wondering, who the heck was Przewalski? The bare bones of his life are this: he was born in 1839, a Russian nobleman of Polish descent. He gained fame as a geographer and explorer of Central and East Asia, and contributed greatly to Europe's understanding of those regions. He was also the first known European to see and describe the only existing species of wild horse. Today the species is known as the Przewalski Horse. Typhus cut his life, and explorations, short in 1888.

Imagine my glee to come across an edition of this esteemed traveler's book. Here was the writings of the premier European explorer of the exact region I was writing about, and his observations doubtless dated from the exact time period, too. Since I strive to be as accurate as I can (within reason), I settled in with my notebook and pen, ready to take copious notes.

At first, that's exactly what I did. I wrote down everything Przewalski said about the capital city, Urga (now known as Ulan Bator), including the geographical layout of the city, noting where the Russians and Chinese had established permanent buildings in a city comprised almost entirely of tents. I noted his remarks about the custom of sharing tobacco, and how Mongols treated their animals. It was all so rich! So perfect for my needs!

But then, my pen slowed. Reading further, I began to be disturbed by what I thought had been an unbiased account of one European man's journey through Mongolia. Przewalski asserted that Mongols were...physically dirty. That they were shiftless liars. That the women of Mongolia were, to put it kindly, unchaste.

Nothing, and I mean nothing of what I had read about Mongols and Mongolia confirmed this. Much of what Przewalski wrote seemed downright untrue, if not slanderous. It smacked of Eurocentrism and an Imperialist mentality.

I was surprised. Shocked, even. Here was a man who was so important to Western understanding of Central Asia that a very rare species of wild horse found only in the area was named for him. Yet he was writing things that, if they weren't outright lies, were certainly not unbiased and impartial.

This called into question everything that he had written. I felt that, in good conscience, I couldn't trust or rely upon a word in Przewalski's book. How could I, when his untruths and distortions littered the text?

With a heavy heart, I returned the book to the library, and started over with my research. It had been a difficult lesson, but an important one. No source is entirely reliable, especially now, when the internet makes it so easy to fabricate something we assume is "truth." From that point on, I made sure to double and triple check my sources, even books, those bulwarks of reliability.

Now, you'll have to excuse me. I hear the siren song of the library stacks calling my name. And I'll heed that song, but as a wiser and more cautious researcher.

The Seasons: Naadam Festival

By Zoe Archer

We've been talking a whole heap about winter traditions and winter events here at UH, but couldn't we all use a little jolt of summer fun as we dip closer and closer to the longest night of the year?

Villages and towns all over the world often host festivals, outdoor amusements and sporting events during the summer months, capitalizing on warm weather, high spirits and short nights. Lest you think that the modern Olympics has cornered the market on multi-sport competitions, might I turn your gaze eastward, toward Mongolia, and the traditional naadam festival. The festival dates all the way back to the 3rd century BCE.

Nowadays, the naadam festival is traditionally held every July, the largest being held in the capital of Ulan Bator from July 11-13. It celebrates Mongolia's "three manly sports:" horseracing, wrestling and archery. In modern times, women also participate in the archery and children vie in the horseracing event, but the wrestling is strictly for men. (Take a look at the wrestling costume. Now you know why women don't compete in that event. In fact, according to legend the costume was devised after a woman secretly entered the wrestling competition and won.)

After an opening ceremony of music and dancing, the competition begins. Wrestling is a hugely popular event. (Again, look at the costumes.) Men from all parts of Mongolia travel to compete. There are no weight divisions, meaning a big man can go toe-to-toe with a smaller man, and no time limits on bouts. The loser is the man who falls first. Bouts can happen very quickly, or seem to take a very long time as the wrestlers look as if they are standing in an embrace, waiting for the perfect opening to throw their opponent. Then the winner performs the "eagle dance" as his defeated opponent takes off his jacket and walks under the winner's outstretched arm.

Mongols come from a nomadic tradition which is still very much part of Mongolian life. In order to cross huge expanses of steppe, horses are essential, and it is often said that a Mongol child first learns to ride before he or she can walk. Genghis Khan and his descendants relied on their expert horsemanship to create and maintain their vast empire. So it's no surprise that horseback riding is part of the naadam. Horses are ridden cross-country, with the length of each race determined by the horses' age class. The true competitors of the horse racing event are the horses, not the jockeys. In fact, most of the jockeys are between the ages of five (yes, five) and thirteen, ensuring their smallness so as not to tire the horses. Feasting inevitably surrounds the races as spectators eat and cheer their horses to victory.

Archery is another key Mongolian sport. Bow hunting and bow-based warfare are both vital historical aspects of life on the steppe. At the naadam, men and women compete in separate divisions. All the competitors dress in traditional dress. Unlike modern archers' use of compound bows, Mongols vying in the naadam use recurved composite bows of horn, leather and bark. Arrows are made of willow branches with vulture feather fletching. They shoot at round, leather targets. Men stand 75 meters and women 60 meters from the targets. Nearby judges evaluate each shot with a shout of "uukhai" ("bull's-eye") and a raised hand. Winning archers are those who hit the targets the most times.

Accompanying all these competitions are, of course, celebrations, music, games, dancing and feasts--all the things Mongols love, and they take special delight in celebrating during the brief summer.

When I began researching Mongolia for my upcoming "Blades of the Rose" novel WARRIOR, I learned about the naadam. The whole festival captured my imagination, being so emblematic of Mongol life and culture. I knew I would have to incorporate the naadam into WARRIOR's plot--and I did, but I can't reveal just yet how the festival plays an important part in the story. For that, you'll have to read the book. Until its release next September, stay warm and dream of competing on the wide, grassy steppe beneath the eternal sky.