The Intellectuals: Lalla Zaynab and Lalla N’Soumer - Indomitable Sufi Scholars

By Laura Rahme

“Raise your words, not voice. It is rain that grows flowers, not thunder.”

– Rumi, Persian Sufi mystic.

Sufism in Algeria rose in importance during the 16^th century, under the Ottoman Empire.  One of the most powerful Sufism school of thought in Algeria is the Rahmanya. It emerged between the 12^th and 18^th centuries. It offered spiritual teaching and education, monetary assistance to its adherents, a refuge for the needy, and was instrumental in maintaining community cohesiveness and social integrity.

Lalla Zaynab was an erudite scholar from the Rahmanya order. It was believed that she possessed Baraka – a spiritual force flowing from God, giving her the ability to perform miracles. Born in 1850, this remarkable ascetic who had taken vows of celibacy, proved a veritable force against the schemes of the French colonists.

The Zawiya of El Hamel

Portrait: Lalla Fatma N'Soumer

Lalla Zaynab was the unique child of Shaykh Muhammad ibn Abi al-Qasim who ran the Zawiya (lodge or monastery) of El Hamel. The zawiya played a key role in teaching the Quran, spreading Rahmanya teachings, feeding the poor, providing relief to flood victims and enabling scholars to occupy positions of great importance. Like many zawiyas in the country, which numbered 160000 by 1887, it helped preserve Algerian identity and cultural heritage. By 1890, there were several hundred students and scholars studying at the El Hamel zawiya at any given moment. It was visited by 7000-8000 pilgrims annually.

In addition to Islamic jurisprudence, Quran and Sufi doctrines, students learned chemistry, mathematics, astrology, astronomy and rhetoric. Shaykh Muhammad reminded the community that the pursuit of science was a duty of all Muslims, a belief which harked back to the medieval Islamic era.

While the French authorities were not known to praise Algerian Muslim leaders, Shaykh Muhammad b. Abi al-Qasim was often described as having “great intelligence, vast knowledge, and [being] pure of morals."

Nevertheless, the French were paranoid about any politically active Sufi brotherhood and their threat to the French empire. They closely monitored all Algerian leaders.

the zawiya of el hamel

A Female Scholar at the Head of the El Hamel Zawiya

Lalla Zaynab had lived secluded in the zawiya for years and as her father’s confidant, had a thorough understanding of its day to day operations. Well versed in all manuscripts and books of the zawiya library, she was the natural successor to her powerful father. But the local French authorities would not see this as beneficial. Their low regard for her gender led them to believe that as a woman, she would be more likely influenced by anti-French forces.

The French were keen to have the shaykh’s nephew, Sidi Mohamed, lead the zawiya. He was not only ambitious and of average intelligence, but also most devoted to French interests. On top of that, he spoke French! However, they also noted that unlike the virtuous and pious Zaynab, Sidi did not have the esteem of his local community, who considered him avaricious and attached to the things of life.

This did not deter the French. A few months before the Shaykh’s death, on 10 Mars 1897, Captain Crochard certified that he had received a letter from the Shaykh, confirming that he designated his nephew, Sidi Mohamed, as his successor.

Following the Shaykh’s death on 2 June 1897, Sidi Mohamed was eager to install himself in the shaykh apartments and inherit the immense fortune. No sooner did he arrive than he was met by the defiant Lalla Zaynab who, brandishing an official will drafted in 1887 declared that she was her father’s sole heir and that she did not acknowledge Sidi Mohammed’s moral and spiritual authority.

Lalla Zaynab met opposition from her cousin, who attempted to have her shut in the harem, but the community who loved her rose against him and his supporters. For the locals, while there was initial reticence as to whether Zaynab was the most befitting leader, it was not due to her gender. Instead, the people were anxious to know whether she, too, possessed her father’s Baraka. A voice apparition from the Shaykh declaring that his daughter had inherited his healing and supernatural powers had soon quashed any doubts.

The French Threaten Lalla Zaynab

Lalla Zaynab

Upon Lalla Zaynab’s triumph, Captain Crochard was out of his mind. He wrote, “this woman has destroyed everything I have put in place.” At this juncture, Commandant Fournier alerted the headquarters in Algiers, enquiring whether a military intervention might be needed to topple Lalla Zaynab and ensure Sidi Mohamed was made head of the zawiya in her place.

Eager to adopt more conciliatory measures, especially with a woman, Crochard attempted to speak with Lalla Zaynab in the hope of pressuring her to defer to her cousin, but she insisted that the letter Crochard held was a fake and wanted to hear none of it.

Crochard had run out of ideas. It seemed that only military force could achieve French interests.  

Would Lalla Zaynab and her community be forced to face the French army? And at what cost?

Consider here that the Shaykh’s fortune amounted to 2 500 000 francs which at the time was an enormous sum when in colonial Algiers, a labourer was paid an average of a mere 1.5 franc per day.

It would not be the first time that the French military would take on a zawiya. One had but to reflect on what had happened when they had first invaded Algeria…

The Joan of Arc of Algeria

From the time of the French arrival in Algeria, the zawiyas usually taught its students to struggle against French dominion.

Back in 1830, when confronted with the French invasion, the Ottoman Dey Hussein called upon the Rahmanya Shaykhs around the Kabylia area and Algiers, to defend the land from French colonial rulers.

At the time, the Rahmanya was led by a young Kabyle woman called Lalla N’Soumer. Born in the Djurdjura area of the Atlas Mountains of Algeria, this highly charismatic spiritual leader and scholar was soon to be referred to by the French as the “Joan of Arc of Djurdjura”.

Her real name was Fatma Sid Ahmed and she was known for her great scholarly gifts, wisdom and intelligence. In 1854, at barely 24, she rallied indigenous Kabyle people, leading an insurrection against the French troops, often throwing herself into the fray and combatting alongside the renowned freedom fighter Abd-el-Kader.

Lalla Fatma N'Soumer in battle

In all, Lalla N'Soumer led a formidable Rahmanya resistance against the French, heading an army of men and women and being successful during several battles including on 18 July 1854 when the French suffered heavy casualties. The French, led by Marshall Randon, asked for a cease-fire. But three years later, in 1857, having replenished and fortified their armies, they broke the cease-fire and again launched into battle. This time round Lalla N’Soumer’s armies were not victorious. 

Just as Joan of Arc had suffered a turn of fortune, Lalla N’Soumer was arrested and incarcerated. She died years later in prison at the age of 33. The French soldiers squandered the wealth of her zawiya and completely destroyed her library.

In fact, from the time of their arrival in Algeria, the French colonists had closed many zawiyas, burning books and manuscripts. French historian Alexis de Tocqueville said in 1847, "We dominated the land, changed its function, established charity centers, neglected schools, dispersed the zawiya...ignored religious men and judges of the law. In doing so we made Islamic society more miserable, and more ignorant, than when we first met."

Lalla Zaynab Takes on the French

If Lalla Zaynab was going to take on the French she would have to be more astute than Lalla N’Soumer.

Under pressure from Captain Crochard, Lalla Zaynab quickly understood that she could not survive a military intervention. Instead, and this is where her scholarly genius shone, she was going to fight the French using their own colonial law against them! She announced that she would press charges against Crochard and his superiors.

In August 1897, Lalla Zaynab met Maurice l’Admiral, an Afro-descendant lawyer from Guadeloupe known for his anti-colonial position and she proceeded to raise a case against the French military administration. Lalla Zaynab who spoke no word of French, instinctively understood how to use colonial law by drawing attention to the military administration’s failure to “respect the indigenous populations”. On top of that, she also had the genius idea of going further - she accused the French authorities of misogyny. Touché! French self-righteousness over its ‘better’ treatment of women was instantly placed into question.

Maurice ''Admiral illustration

Once Maurice l’Admiral began his independent judiciary intervention, the state of affairs underwent a transformation. Of particular concern was the bad publicity caused by French poor treatment of Muslim dignitaries. At the time, the French had commenced an international public relations campaign designed to convince Muslims in Morocco, Tunisia and elsewhere of the benefits of French rule. This case was detrimental to the desired image of French tolerance and benevolence.

In October 1897, Jules Cambon, governor general of Algeria was alerted by the authorities and told of Zaynab’s judicial case. Luckily for Lalla Zaynab, Jules was a man of culture, who later was to be elected at the French Academy. He was the first colonist to engage in dialogue with the order leaders and to show interest in Sufism. In no uncertain terms, he told Algiers Commandant Collet-Meygret that they had to renounce all military intervention against the El Hamel Zawiya.

The zawiya was saved.

Lalla Zaynab had used the pen instead of the sword and won.

For the following years the mystical scholar, Lalla Zaynab, ran the zawiya with authority and wisdom. She gave generously to the poor and the needy, continuing her father’s legacy. She was a revered figure for years to come. It is said that in her approach to confronting the French, Lalla Zaynab saw 70 years ahead of her time, what would become crucial to Algerian nationalism.

The Legacy of the Rahmanya

Today the Rahmanya legacy lives on and its teachings are more important than ever.

Established in 1990, the Rahmanya Association for Zawiya Scholarship emphasises spiritual education, efforts to preserve religious unity and avoid extremism and preservation of the Algerian Islamic identity.

Since 2001, an ordinance has asked for collaboration to protect the young from media influence and from religious extremism.

Sources:

Tariqah Rahmania: Its Roots and Prospects, by Kacimi El Hassani and Mohammed Raouf, The Journal of Sophia Asian Studies No. 27 (2009), Sophia University Repository for Academic Resources.

Lalla Fatma N'Soumer, Amazigh World, 20 April 2007, http://www.amazighworld.org/history/index_show.php?id=1828, Accessed on 28 Feb 2016.

À La Tête D’une Grande Zaouïa En 1897 Lalla Zineb, L’insoumise, by Benchenouf Djamaledine, 20 April 2013, http://dzactiviste.info/a-la-tete-dune-grande-zaouia-en-1897-lalla-zineb-linsoumise/, Accessed on 28 Feb 2016.

Struggle and Survival in the Modern Middle East, by Edmund Burke and Nejde Yaghoubian, University of California Press, 2006.

Rebel and Saint - Muslim Notables, Populist Protest, Colonial Encounters (Algeria and Tunisia 1800 – 1904), by Julia A. Clancy-Smith, University of California Press, 1994.

All images from Commons

Unusual Journeys: Miguel de Cervantes’s Unexpectedly Prolonged Mediterranean Adventure

By Jessica Knauss

Miguel de Cervantes’s extraordinary qualities extended far beyond his writing. His biography reads like an adventure novel. Born the middle son of an itinerant barber-surgeon, travel came into his blood with his mother’s milk. But his most unusual journey was a routine trip on the galley Sol in 1575.

Cervantes was nearly 28 years old when he embarked. He would live another 30 years before Don Quijote de la Mancha would meet the public. (Cervantes should stand as an inspiration to late bloomers everywhere.) In 1569, the story goes, a nobleman had insulted his sister and Cervantes wounded him in a duel in the royal palace. The penalty would have been to lose his right hand and be exiled from the kingdom for ten years. There is disagreement about whether or not the dueler was our Miguel de Cervantes. In any case, right around this time, Miguel joined the Spanish navy marines in Italy, perhaps waiting for the law to forget his offense.

His brother Rodrigo joined him and together they participated in the Battle of Lepanto, a naval victory against the Turks much celebrated at the time. On the day of the battle, Miguel was sick with a fever and ordered to stay below, but his sense of duty held sway. He seems to have fought on deck in the midst of the thickest action. Two bullets lodged in his chest; a third resulted in the loss of the use of his left hand. This wound, though debilitating, served as a badge of honor for the rest of his life.

Battle of Lepanto, Andrea Vicentino
WIkiMedia Commons

He convalesced in Italy for six months. The world must remain forever grateful for this down time, because he finally had leisure to do the reading that would so heavily influence his thoughts and work. He participated in at least two more battles before he and Rodrigo were sent home to Spain.

It was September, 1575. It was a totally unremarkable trip from Naples to Barcelona. Miguel carried letters of recommendation addressed to the king and had high hopes for stable employment with the State. But, especially in the sixteenth century, there is no sure thing in life. Just when it seemed Sol was about to pull into safe harbor, North African pirates captured the ship, killing the captain and many crew members.

Miguel and his brother Rodrigo were sold at the slave market in Algiers. Suddenly Miguel’s papers of commendation became a liability. The Algerians, who were in the habit of holding the important Christians they captured for ransom, thought Miguel was one such important Christian, and they set his price unattainably high.

Miguel’s sisters gave up their dowries and his mother begged the government in futile efforts to bring the brothers home. Conditions in captivity were harsh. Most prisoners were chained in dark rooms and required to perform physical tasks under strict guard. Miguel’s apparent status as well as his injury may have spared him too much labor, and some biographers have surmised that he served as a notary or an interpreter for his master.

The conditions, or the mere fact of captivity, were harsh enough for Miguel to attempt to escape four times. No one knows why he didn’t receive the official punishment for fugitives: death by torture. The Algerian officials were noted for their cruelty, often lashing, impaling, and hanging offenders such like Cervantes by the feet until dead. However, they let him off every time with only a short prison sentence. Biographers suggest that they were impressed with Miguel’s courage. When questioned about the accomplices to his escape plans, he never betrayed his collaborators, but asked to be punished alone.

When his family miraculously gathered enough money to ransom one, but only one, of the brothers, Miguel allowed that brother to be Rodrigo. In the end, the family enlisted the help of Nuestra Señora de la Merced, a Trinitarian order that specialized in rescuing Christian captives in Africa.

Cervantes returned to his home country in 1580, five years after Sol was to have delivered him, and five years of unknown torment. As he later expressed in the voice of Don Quijote, “no treasure the Earth contains nor the sea conceals can be compared to” freedom after captivity.

He had left a criminal in danger of losing his right hand and being exiled for ten years, and returned, after twelve years away, an unemployed hero without the use of his left hand. A routine sail to Barcelona became a defining moment and the most unusual journey of Cervantes’s life.

And the most surreal, most artistically fruitful part of his life was yet to come.

Some great resources on Cervantes’s life:

Cervantes by Jean Canavaggio, Joseph R. Jones (Translator), 1990.

Cervantes in Algiers: A Captive’s Tale by Maria Antonia Garcés, 2005.

Miguel de Cervantes (Modern Critical Views), ed. by Harold Bloom, 2005.

The Cambridge Companion to Cervantes, ed. by Anthony J Cascardi, 2002.

Critical Essays on Cervantes ed. by Ruth S. El Saffar, 1986.

A driven fiction writer, Jessica Knauss has edited many fine historical novels and is currently a bilingual copyeditor at an educational publisher. Find out more about her historical novel, Seven Noble Knights, and her other writing and bookish activities here. Follow her on Facebook and Twitter, too!

Guest Blog: Marie Laval

This week, we're welcoming author Marie Laval, whose novel THE LION'S EMBRACE is set in North Africa. The author will offer a free copy of the book to a lucky blog visitor; please, leave your email address along with a comment. Here's the blurb:

Arrogant, selfish and dangerous, Lucas Saintclair is everything Harriet Montague dislikes in a man. He is also the best guide in the whole of the Barbary States, the only man who can rescue her archaeologist father from the gang of Tuareg fighters that has kidnapped him. As Harriet embarks on a perilous journey across Algeria with Saintclair and Archibald Drake, her father’s most trusted friend, she discovers a bewitching but brutal land where nothing is what it seems. Who are these men intent on stealing her father’s ransom? What was her father hoping to find in Tuareg queen Tin Hinan’s tomb? Is Lucas Saintclair really as callous as he claims—or is he a man haunted by a past he cannot forgive? Dangerous passions engulf Harriet’s heart in the heat of the Sahara. Secrets of lost treasures, rebel fighters, and a sinister criminal brotherhood threaten her life and the life of the man she loves.

Does forever lie in the lion’s embrace?

**Q&A with Marie Laval**

Your second historical romance, The Lion's Embrace, is set in North-Africa. Why did you choose this setting?

I was always fascinated by Algeria and the Sahara desert. My French-Italian mother was born and brought up near Algiers. Although she left when Algeria became independent in the 1960s, she told us so many stories about the place and showed us so many photos that my sisters and I grew up dreaming of going there one day.

I was always particularly attracted to the Sahara desert and the Hoggar mountains in the far South, which are not only breathtakingly beautiful, but have a rich history too. The Sahara wasn’t always a desert, as testify the thousands of rock art paintings and engravings that can be found there.

Did you do a lot of research for the novel?

I did, and I loved every minute of it! I was very lucky to find a 'Guide Bleu' travel guide of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco dating from 1923. Although my novel takes place in 1845, the guide provided me with invaluable information about travel times between towns and provinces, maps, lists of hotels or facilities, prices even, as well as an overview of past local customs and traditions.

I surrounded myself with photos and paintings by Delacroix, Dinet or Gérôme. I completely fell in love with the Tuaregs’ poetry and legends, with their music and the ‘imzad’ - the monochord violin which women play and which produces poignant, haunting melodies.

What kind of hero is Lucas Saintclair?

I am tempted to answer 'the best!' but then I am biased! He seems totally cold, cynical and callous, and appears not to care about anyone but himself. The truth, of course, is quite different...

What attracted you to Harriet Montague as a heroine?

I loved Harriet's determination and poise, and her total commitment to her father which pushes her to brave the dangers and discomfort of a journey across Algeria in order to rescue him from the gang of Tuareg who abducted him...or so she believes. She is a scholarly young woman, who was brought up by her archaeologist father and dreams of carrying on in his footsteps.

Is The Lion’s Embrace part of a series?

Although the novel is stand alone, it is kind of a sequel to my first historical romance Angel Heart, also published by MuseitUp Publishing. Angel Heart is the story of Lucas Saintclair’s parents, Hugo and Marie-Ange and mostly takes place in France, and the Lyon area where I come from.

What are you working on now?

I am working on my third historical romance, Dancing for the Devil, which is the story of Rose Saintclair, Lucas’ sister, as she sails to the North of Scotland to be reunited with the man she married in Algiers a few weeks before. As she sails around Cape Wrath, Rose's ship is caught in a violent storm and she is rescued by Bruce McGunn, Wrath's local laird and her husband's mortal enemy.

'Dancing for the Devil' is darker than my two previous novels and I hope to finish the first draft this summer. 

Where can we buy  The Lion's Embrace?

The Lion's Embrace is available from

http://www.amazon.co.uk/The-Lions-Embrace-ebook/dp/B00BACDSK6

http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_noss/183-0994619-8518933?url=search-alias%3Ddigital-text&field-keywords=marie+laval+the+lion%27s+embrace

Where can we find you?

I have a blog, and a Facebook page. Please visit and leave comments!

 http://marielaval.blogspot.co.uk/

https://www.facebook.com/marie.laval.9

Excerpt Thursday: The Lion's Embrace by Marie Laval

This week, we're welcoming author Marie Laval, whose novel THE LION'S EMBRACE is set in North Africa. Join us on Sunday, when the author will offer a free copy of the book to a lucky blog visitor. Here's the blurb:

Arrogant, selfish and dangerous, Lucas Saintclair is everything Harriet Montague dislikes in a man. He is also the best guide in the whole of the Barbary States, the only man who can rescue her archaeologist father from the gang of Tuareg fighters that has kidnapped him. As Harriet embarks on a perilous journey across Algeria with Saintclair and Archibald Drake, her father’s most trusted friend, she discovers a bewitching but brutal land where nothing is what it seems. Who are these men intent on stealing her father’s ransom? What was her father hoping to find in Tuareg queen Tin Hinan’s tomb? Is Lucas Saintclair really as callous as he claims—or is he a man haunted by a past he cannot forgive? Dangerous passions engulf Harriet’s heart in the heat of the Sahara. Secrets of lost treasures, rebel fighters, and a sinister criminal brotherhood threaten her life and the life of the man she loves.

Does forever lie in the lion’s embrace?

** An Excerpt from The Lion’s Embrace**

It was a narrow valley where the river curved into a bend, secluded by thick bushes and reeds. After a quick glance around to make sure she was alone, she stripped and walked naked into the water. It was so cold it took her breath away. She gritted her teeth, clutched her bar of soap, and walked into the river until the water reached her hips. Getting rid of the grime and sweat of the past few days was worth the torture…

Holding her breath, she dipped into the water before standing and lathering soap over her body and her hair.

The light was changing. A transparent gold dust touched the hillside, the top of the trees. The sunrise streaked the sky with red, orange, and pink hues, reflecting into the river. She was alone in the world, in a bubble hovering between sky and water.

It was then she heard the growling. Stones tumbled down the hillside seconds before a male lion jumped onto the river bank, sleek and agile. It approached the river and started drinking. It hadn’t seen her. Yet.

Her heart thumping with terror, she ducked under the water very slowly, careful not to make any ripples on the surface. How long would she have to hold her breath? How long did it take a lion to quench its thirst after a night spent hunting? What if it saw her and came after her? Did lions, like cats, hate water? Her lungs started to burn, she felt close to choking. When she couldn’t hold on any longer, she popped her head above the water and took a long, long breath.

The lion had gone.

“You are one lucky woman,” a voice called from the bank.

Still breathless, she spun round. Saintclair crouched near the water, a knife in one hand, a pistol in the other.

“How l-long have you be-been here?” she stuttered, her teeth chattering from cold and shock.

“Long enough.”

Had he watched her undress and get into the water? Actually, she’d rather not know.

She moved her legs and arms, numb and stiff with cold.

“Is it safe? Has the lion gone?” She looked toward the hillside.

“You’re safe. From the lion, that is.” He narrowed his eyes. “I, on the other hand, might just want to throttle you for disregarding my orders. I knew taking you with us was a mistake. I knew you were stubborn. I didn’t realize just how reckless, how stupid you were. You could have been mauled to death just then.”

“I handled the lion perfectly well on my own.” She tilted her chin. Her heart had almost stopped with fright, but there was no reason to tell him.

He stood up, put his pistol in the holster on his hip, slid the knife in his boot, and walked toward the edge of the water. His face was so tense, his eyes so steely, that she recoiled. He was going to walk into the river, pull her out and…

“Damn it, woman, you were told not to leave the camp alone. You were warned about lions roaming this area. There are all sorts of dangers here—wild animals, snakes, scorpions.” He looked up towards the hillside. “Raiders.”

She swallowed hard, followed his gaze toward the top of the hills.

He shook his head.

“If that lion hadn’t been so old and half-blind, you wouldn’t be talking to me now.”

“It seemed pretty sprightly to me,” she muttered.

He snorted.

“Get out. You’re freezing, and your lips are blue,” he said without a trace of sympathy in his voice.

She shivered, nodded. “Only if you turn round.”

“It’s a bit late to play the prude,” he muttered, but he obliged and faced the other way.

So he had seen her naked. Well, he wouldn’t see her now. She covered her chest with her arms and walked to the shore. She threw a nervous glance in his direction before stepping out of the water, but he remained immobile, his back to her, as if he had been turned into rock.

She gathered her clothes as fast as she could, stumbling on pebbles in her haste, and chose a large bush behind which to get dressed.

Her fingers were too cold, too stiff to fasten her tunic’s tiny buttons. She had to leave it open for now. She put her boots on and ventured out of the bushes. Saintclair took one look at her and snarled.

“You can’t go back to camp half dressed.”

She pulled her tunic across her chest to cover up, shifted uncomfortably on her feet.

“I can’t do the buttons up,” she said, showing him her hands still red raw with cold.

He tightened his lips but didn’t answer.

The sun now peeped above the rugged hilltop, a huge orange ball setting the sky on fire. Dazzled, Harriet caught her breath.

“This is…magnificent. We don’t have sunrises like that in England.”

He gazed at her face, at her eyes filled with wonder.

“No but you have rain, summer storms.”

He stepped closer and looked down into her eyes. “I always wanted to stand outside in a thunderstorm.” Her eyes were a rain cloud right now, cool and soothing.

She smiled. “You might get hit by lightning.”

“Maybe, but what a beautiful way to die,” he said. His breathing was a little faster, his gaze heavier.

She parted her lips but didn’t answer. The colour of her cheeks deepened. In the opening of her tunic, the gold pendant gleamed against her milky white skin. His fingers itched to toy with it and bring it to his lips, still hot and fragrant from her body.

The Lion's Embrace is available from

http://www.amazon.co.uk/The-Lions-Embrace-ebook/dp/B00BACDSK6

http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=nb_sb_noss/183-0994619-8518933?url=search-alias%3Ddigital-text&field-keywords=marie+laval+the+lion%27s+embrace

15 Minutes of Fame: Lucius Cornelius Balbus

By: Stephanie Dray

With the wicked Egyptian seductress dead, the Romans had every reason to believe the Republic would return to normal. Oh, some might argue that Cleopatra’s conqueror now meant to destroy the Republic and rule as king. He had, after all, begun to call himself Augustus (the illustrious one). But now that the civil wars were over, up-and-coming politicians like Lucius Cornelius Balbus bet that everything was going to return to normal.

Though Balbus was born in Spain, he’d been granted Roman citizenship, and had every reason to believe that he had a great future as a leader. He wasn’t a nobody after all. He was from the plebian side of gens Cornelia. Which is to say, he was related, in the complicated way of the Romans, to the Cornelii, a family who had, thus far, produced more Roman leaders than any other.

For nearly five-hundred years Rome had been ruled by her citizenry through elected bodies, governed by a carefully constructed constitution of checks and balances. Unlike our own Constitution, it didn’t guarantee equal opportunity for all--but Balbus believed it gave him a decent chance! Since Rome had done away with kings long ago, an ambitious young man could reach the pinnacle of power by working hard for the public. Young Romans started upon what was known as the cursus honorum (a course of offices) starting with military service and lowly magistracies and stretching all the way to the lofty heights of the consulship of Rome. If a young man had a taste for military life, he might become a pro-consul or governor of a province, and if he won a successful war, he would even be granted a giant military parade known as a triumph

This military parade was one of Rome’s highest honors and a man who was granted one of these would be known as a triumphator for the rest of his life! The Senate had never allowed anyone to celebrate a triumph who hadn’t been born a Roman citizen, but Balbus thought he might have a shot, if only there were a foreign war to be found.

He’d started his military career serving under Julius Caesar. When the dictator was assassinated, Balbus appears to have gone off to find his fortune in Mauretania at the side of King Bogud. Mauretania was just across the straight from Balbus’ home town of Gades and it was a land of plenty. Good fishing, lots of natural resources, and big plantations on which Balbus could grow wheat. Not a bad place to settle down--if Balbus had been the settling kind.

Before long, Mark Antony fell in love with Cleopatra and both of them went to war with Rome. So when King Bogud sided with Mark Antony and Balbus may have been with them both at Actium. Whatever the truth of the matter, when the war was over, instead of returning to Spain, Balbus decided to make a name for himself in Africa.

Africa was, after all, Rome’s latest obsession. Once Augustus chose to marry Cleopatra’s daughter to King Juba II and make them both the rulers of Mauretania, it became clear that Africa was the hip and happening place to be. Balbus may have travelled with the court of Juba II & Cleopatra Selene. As an able soldier and veteran of the wars, he’d have been the natural choice for a Roman advisor to the new monarchs. He almost assuredly had land there and would have wanted to be on good terms with the new folks in charge. Especially since Juba and Selene were nominal members of Augustus’ extended family

Juba and Selene were indebted to Augustus and sought to honor him at every turn. They had realized what Balbus had not; the Republic was on its way out. Augustus was about to form a monarchy in fact if not name, and “the new Caesar” didn’t look kindly upon rivals. Augustus had no intention of ever allowing another Roman--especially not one born in Spain like Balbus--to have any true independent power.

But Balbus still had big plans. He accepted a post as the Pro-Consul of Africa Nova--a province just to the east of Mauretania. There he waged an aggressive war against the Garamantes, a Berber tribal people of ferocious spirit. And when he captured their settlements, collected their loot, and dealt them a decisive defeat, he appealed to the Roman Senate to grant him a triumph.

Now, as mentioned before, Augustus didn’t like rivals. The so-called First Citizen appears to have decided that he should be the only man allowed to celebrate triumphs anymore. Consequently, when Marcus Licinius Crassus (grandson of the more famous triumvir) returned from a very successful campaign in the Balkans, Augustus tried to block him from celebrating a triumph. Crassus also disappears from the historical record shortly thereafter. This is unlikely to be an accident, considering the fate that befell others outside of the Julio-Claudian family who sought military honor. (Another example is the Praefect of Egypt, Cornelius Gallus, who was forced to commit suicide for boasting of his military achievements.)

Fortunately for Balbus, when he made his request for a triumph, Augustus happened to be out of town. (The would-be-emperor was off in the East poised for war with the Parthians and perhaps a little bit out of the loop.) In what would be one of their last independent acts, the Senate granted Balbus his heart’s desire. With high hopes and ambitions, Balbus apparently went to Rome with his soldiers, rode through the streets in a chariot, his face painted crimson, a slave whispering behind him a reminder that he was still a mortal. Balbus was the first non-Roman-born general to celebrate such an honor.

He was also the last.

He showed off his prisoners and loot, was hailed as an imperator, and saw the pinnacle of his career. He was treated like a king for a day. And then he was more or less never heard from again.

As far as Augustus was concerned, the legions all belonged to him now. Roman generals were only borrowing the army from him--not from the state--and therefore, every victory was actually his victory. Henceforth, only smaller celebrations and honors and ovations were allowed to those outside the imperial family. Returning from the East with the battle-standards that had been captured by Parthia in previous wars, Augustus snuffed out the Republic’s last breath and became the first emperor of Rome.

Stephanie Dray's debut historical fiction novel, LILY OF THE NILE , was just release by Berkley Books. The sequel is expected to release at the end of 2011. Both novels are set in the Augustan Age and feature Cleopatra's daughter.